Technology Innovation in Underground Construction (Hardback)

This richly-illustrated reference guide presents innovative techniques focused on reducing time, cost and risk in the construction and maintenance of underground facilities:

A primary focus of the technological development in underground engineering is to ease the practical execution and to reduce time, cost and risk in the construction and maintenance of underground facilities such as tunnels and caverns. This can be realized by new design tools for designers, by instant data access for engineers, by virtual prototyping and training for manufacturers, and by robotic devices for maintenance and repair for operators and many more advances.

This volume presents the latest technological innovations in underground design, construction, and operation, and comprehensively discusses developments in ground improvement, simulation, process integration, safety, monitoring, environmental impact, equipment, boring and cutting, personnel training, materials, robotics and more. These new features are the result of a big research project on underground engineering, which has involved many players in the discipline.

Written in an accessible style and with a focus on applied engineering, this book is aimed at a readership of engineers, consultants, contractors, operators, researchers, manufacturers, suppliers and clients in the underground engineering business. It may moreover be used as educational material for advanced courses in tunnelling and underground construction.

This book contains the results of one of the largest research projects on tunnels and underground openings carried out in the European Community and aims at introducing innovative design tools and new technical procedures in tunnelling engineering. Edited by Prof. Gernot Beer, one the leading authorities in the development and application of computer oriented methods in rock/soil engineering, it presents 24 contributions of leading experts in the field. Contributions span from new information systems and computer supported methods for tunnel design, to the visual representation of the progress of excavation; from software for the numerical simulation of mechanized and conventional tunnelling methods, and for monitoring of the displacements induced by tunnelling, to software for controlling the advancing process of tunnel boring machines. Other chapters concern technological problems, such as the use ofshotcrete and of low pressure injections, the optimization of rock cutting tools, the robotic inspection of tunnels, etc. The large spectrum and depth of topics covered, and their impact on the tunnel design and construction, makes this book of particular interest for practicing engineers and for applied researchers. Giancarlo Gioda, Professor of Geotechnical Engineering, Dept. of Structural Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy

"[…] the project will certainly result in a breakthrough in activities ranging from planning to maintenance. Contributions cover the whole spectrum of underground construction activities with an integrated approach." Tarcisio B. Celestino, University of Sao Paulo

1. Introduction

1.1 Motivation
1.2 Problems
1.3 Vision
1.3.1 Design
1.3.2 Processes
1.3.3 Equipment and materials
1.3.4 Maintenance an repair
1.4 Contents of the book

2. UCIS – Underground construction information system

2.1 Introduction
2.2 UCIS – Underground construction information system
2.2.1 Objectives
2.2.2 Architecture
2.2.3 Design and development
2.2.4 Data model
2.2.5 3D ground model
2.3 Introduction
2.4 Contribution to the overall project
2.5 Workflow
2.6 Geometrical data: software implementation
2.7 Geological & geomechanical attributes: classification
2.8 Geological & geotechnical database
2.9 Data link geometrical data – geological/ geotechnical objects
2.10 Subsurface models
2.10.1 UCIS – Applications
2.11 KRONOS – tunnel information system
2.12 KRONOS-WEB – monitoring data reporting and alarming system
2.13 Decision support system for cyclic tunnelling
2.14 Web-based information system on underground construction projects
2.15 Virtual reality visualisation system
2.16 Summary

3. Computer-support for the design of underground structures

3.1 Introduction
3.2 State-of-the-art in tunnel design
3.3 The applied design concept
3.3.1 Design method
3.3.2 Analysis of the possible degree of automation
3.3.3 Automation concept
3.4 Rule base for tunnel pre-design
3.4.1 Determination of the ground behaviour
3.4.2 Determination of suitable excavation methods and support measures
3.5 Key input parameters
3.6 Support classes
3.7 Energy classes
3.8 Excavation methods
3.9 Refinement for shield tunneling
3.9.1 General workflow embedded in the rule base
3.9.2 Determination of time and costs
3.10 Integrated optimization platform for underground construction
3.10.1 Realization/implementation
3.11 Graphical user interface
3.12 3D-Ground model
3.13 Rule base
3.14 Numerical simulation software
3.14.1 Background information and software technology
3.15 Summary

4. A virtual reality visualisation system for underground construction

4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Virtual reality
4.1.2 Augmented reality
4.1.3 Mixed reality
4.1.4 Capacity of today’s VR-, AR- and MR-systems
4.2 A Virtual reality visualisation system for underground construction
4.2.1 Objective
4.2.2 Input data
4.2.3 VR software
4.2.4 VR hardware
4.2.5 Application example
4.3 Summary
4.4 Outlook, augmented reality in tunnelling

5. From laboratory, geological and TBM data to input parameters for simulation models

5.1 Introduction
5.2 A hierarchical, relational and web-driven Rock Mechanics Database
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Test data reduction methodology
5.2.3 A failure criterion for rocks
5.2.4 Example calibration of lab test rock parameters to model parameters of the HMC constitutive model (Level-B of analysis)
5.2.5 Structure of the rock mechanics database
5.3 Geometrical and geostatistical discretization of geological solids
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Solid modeling
5.3.3 Geostatistical modeling
5.4 A special upscaling theory of rock mass parameters
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 A special upscaling theory for rock masses
5.4.3 Illustrative upscaling example
5.5 Back-analysis of tbm logged data
5.5.1 Introduction
5.5.2 Basic relationships
5.5.3 An example of backward analysis
5.6 Conclusions

6. Process-oriented numerical simulation of mechanised tunnelling

6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Requirements for computational models for mechanised tunnel construction
6.1.2 Novel computational framework for process-oriented simulations in mechanised tunnelling as part of an integrated decision support system
6.2 Three-phase model for partially saturated soil
6.2.1 Theory of porous media
6.2.2 Governing balance equations
6.2.3 Constitutive relations for hydraulic behaviour
6.2.4 Stress-strain behaviour of soil skeleton
6.3 Finite element formulation of the multiphase model for soft soils
6.3.1 Spatial and temporal discretization
6.3.2 Object-oriented implementation
6.4 Selection of soil models and parameters
6.4.1 Saturated soil model
6.4.2 Unsaturated soil model
6.4.3 Cemented soil model
6.4.4 Double hardening soil model
6.5 Verification of the three-phase model for soft soils
6.5.1 Consolidation test
6.5.2 Drying test
6.6 Components of the finite element model for mechanised tunnelling
6.6.1 Heading face support
6.6.2 Frictional contact between TBM and soil
6.6.3 Tail void grouting
6.6.4 Shield machine, hydraulic jacks, lining and backup trailer
6.7 Model generation and simulation procedure
6.7.1 Automatic model generation
6.7.2 Mesh adaption for TBM advance and steering of shield machine
6.7.3 Interface to IOPT
6.7.4 Parallelisation concept
6.8 Sensitivity analysis and parameter identification
6.8.1 Numerical approximation of sensitivity terms
6.8.2 Analytical sensitivities derived by the direct differentiation method
6.8.3 Adjoint method for deriving analytical sensitivities
6.8.4 Implementation of analytical sensitivity methods
6.8.5 Optimisation of process parameters
6.8.6 Inverse analyses for estimation of unknown parameters
6.8.7 Current state and outlook for further developments in sensitivity analyses
6.9 Selected applications of the simulation model for mechanised tunnelling
6.9.1 Numerical simulation of compressed air support
6.9.2 Numerical simulation of changing pressure conditions at the heading face
6.9.3 Numerical simulation of the Mas Blau section of L9 of Metro Barcelona
6.10 Conclusions

7. Computer simulation of conventional construction

7.1 Introduction
7.2 A new simulation paradigm
7.3 Preprocessor
7.4 The boundary element method
7.4.1 Sequential excavation
7.5 Example – sequential tunnel excavation
7.5.1 Non-linear material behavior
7.6 Non-linear BEM
7.7 The non-linear solution algorithm
7.8 Hierarchical constitutive model
7.9 Example
7.9.1 Heterogeneous ground and ground improvement methods
7.10 Introduction
7.11 Consideration of geological conditions
7.12 Pipe roofs
7.13 Examples
7.13.1 Rock bolts
7.14 Introduction
7.15 Fully grouted rock bolts
7.16 Discrete anchored bolts
7.17 Examples
7.17.1 Shotcrete and steel arches
7.18 Introduction
7.19 Shotcrete as an assembly of shell finite elements
7.20 Steel arches as an assembly of beam finite elements
7.21 Optimization of code and adaptation to special hardware
7.21.1 Computational complexity
7.21.2 Iterative solvers
7.21.3 Fast methods
7.21.4 Modern hardware – parallelization
7.22 Practical application
7.22.1 The koralm tunnel

8. Optical fiber sensing cable for underground settlement monitoring during tunneling

8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Tunnel construction with tunnel boring machines
8.1.2 Risk associated to tunneling in urban areas
8.1.3 State of the art
8.1.4 Research frame
8.1.5 Settlement to be measured
8.1.6 Developed solutions
8.2 Sensors based on deformation of optical fibres
8.2.1 General principles
8.2.2 Brillouin technology
8.2.3 Fiber embedded at the periphery of a cable or a tube
8.2.4 Cable environment
8.2.5 Development of an industrial process
8.3 Sensing element
8.4 15 mm diameter cable
8.5 150 mm diameter cable
8.6 Sensors based on slope measurement
8.7 Sensor validation
8.7.1 Geometric validation in open air
8.8 Bench test
8.9 Optical fiber validation
8.10 TBMSET validation
8.10.1 Geometric validation in buried material – cairo tests
8.11 Presentation of cairo project
8.12 Test area
8.13 Settlement gauges network
8.14 Installation of the test area
8.15 On site data acquisition from sensing elements
8.16 Job site data
8.17 Settlement gauges
8.18 Validation of pipe behavior inside the ground
8.19 Impact of grout injection on the settlement
8.20 Optical fiber results
8.21 TBMSET results
8.22 Conclusion

9. Tunnel seismic exploration and its validation based on data from TBM control and observed geology

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Seismic exploration during tunneling
9.2.1 Challenges
9.2.2 Finite-difference simulations of seismic data
9.3 Description of the discrete model
9.4 Modeling results
9.4.1 Short outline of seismic data processing
9.5 Pre-processing
9.6 Migration and velocity analysis
9.7 Use of TBM data and geology for seismic data validation
9.8 Conclusions

10. Advances in the steering of Tunnel Boring Machines

10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Motivation
10.1.2 Solution concept
10.2 Analysis of relevant steering parameters
10.2.1 TBM control and monitoring systems – state of the art
10.3 Systems for subsidence monitoring
10.4 Monitoring systems for geodetic survey of the machine position and orientation
10.5 Steering system for the control parameters of the tunnelling machine
10.5.1 Induced surface deformations and control parameters during shield drive
10.6 Subsidence in front of the cutter head (advanced subsidence)
10.7 Subsidence in the area of the shield
10.8 Subsidence associated with annular gap grouting
10.9 Subsidence after hardening of the annular gap mortar (subsequent subsidence)
10.9.1 Expert rules for subsidence control
10.10 Steering system
10.10.1 Requirements
10.10.2 Solution concept and system architecture
10.10.3 Fuzzy logic expert system and reasoning
10.11 Rules
10.12 Fuzzy logic data evaluation
10.12.1 Software system developed
10.12.2 verification and validation
10.13 Incident management system
10.13.1 General
10.13.2 Causes for incidents
10.14 Geology and hydrology
10.15 Shield machine
10.16 Operation errors
10.16.1 Development of the incident catalogue
10.16.2 Description of the incident management system
10.16.3 Showcase example in detail
10.16.4 Automated detection of incidents
10.17 Conclusion

11. Real-time geological mapping of the front face

11.1 Introduction
11.2 State of the art
11.3 Technological solution
11.3.1 Objectives
11.3.2 Specifications
11.3.3 Technological choices
11.4 Disc cutter and housing
11.5 Overall description
11.6 Monitored parameters
11.7 Disc cutter modeling
11.8 Mobydic monitoring
11.9 Applications
11.9.1 Lock ma shau tunnel
11.9.2 A41
11.10 Conclusion

12. Reducing the environmental impact of tunnel boring (OSCAR)

12.1 Introduction
12.2 State of the art
12.2.1 Historical context
12.2.2 Tunnel construction with tunnel boring machine
12.2.3 Soil conditioning for EPB machine
12.3 Research project description
12.3.1 Objective
12.3.2 The overall objective of these tests isto define the specific additive properties versus specific situations, e.g. soil, confinement pressure, soil permeability, and to develop adapted foams. A computer program has been written for the right selection the foam dosage. Selected tests
12.4 Oscar reactor
12.4.1 OSCAR general view
12.4.2 The reactor
12.4.3 Screw conveyor
12.4.4 Baroïd water loss filter (Garcia, IFP)
12.4.5 Direct output
12.4.6 Foam production (Fig. 11)
12.5 Test results
12.5.1 Soil
12.6 Soil types
12.7 Clay
12.8 Silt
12.9 Sand
12.10 Mixed soil
12.11 Soil with gypsum content
12.12 Soil conditioning
12.12.1 Additives
12.13 Surfactants
12.14 Foam design rules
12.15 Specifications of foams
12.16 Polymers
12.17 Other additives
12.18 Specification of foams
12.19 Input required and calculation of foam parameters
12.20 Atmospheric tests
12.21 Hyperbaric Tests
12.22 Foam dosage computation
12.23 Proposed draft standard
12.23.1 Ground sampling
12.23.2 Cutter head sealant
12.23.3 Soil conditioning test
12.24 Step 1: Atmospheric tests
12.25 Step 2: Atmospheric tests
12.26 Step 3: Pressurized tests
12.27 Conclusion

13. Safety assessment during construction of shotcrete tunnel shells using micromechanical material models

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Modeling cementitious materials in the framework of continuum micromechanics
13.2.1 Fundamentals of micromechanics – Representative volume element (RVE)
13.2.2 Micromechanical representation of cementitious materials
13.2.3 Elasticity and strength of cementitious materials
13.3 Morphological representation of hydration products in cement paste
13.4 Strength of cement paste
13.5 Strength of shotcrete
13.6 Experimental validation of micromechanics-based material models
13.6.1 Mixture-dependent shotcrete composition
13.6.2 Experimental validation on cement paste level
13.6.3 Experimental validation on shotcrete level
13.7 Micromechanics-based characterization of shotcrete: Influence of water-cement and aggregate-cement ratios on elasticity and strength evolutions
13.8 Continuum micromechanics-based safety assessment of natm tunnel shells
13.8.1 Water-cement ratio-dependence of structural safety
13.8.2 Aggregate-cement ratio-dependence of structural safety
13.9 Conclusions

14. Observed segment behaviour during tunnel advance

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Organization of the chapter
14.3 Forces on the EPB machine
14.3.1 Excavation mode
14.3.2 Ring mounting mode
14.4 Eccentricity of the Jack’s total thrust
14.5 Backfill mortar injection pressures
14.6 Study of several cases
14.6.1 Collection and treatment of data
14.6.2 Geological considerations
14.6.3 Comparison between theoretical and EPB machine registered thrusts
14.6.4 Registered eccentricities
14.6.5 Tests to measure the pressure on the segments using pressure sensors
14.7 Conclusions
14.7.1 Definition of the forces acting on the EPB machine.
14.7.2 Effects of the eccentricity of the resultant of thrusting forces
14.7.3 Distribution of the backfill mortar pressures

15. Optimizing rock cutting through computer simulation

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Tool–rock interaction
15.3 Wear of rock cutting tools
15.4 Thermomechanical model of rock cutting
15.5 Wear model
15.6 Determination of rock model parameters
15.7 Simulation of rock cutting laboratory test
15.8 Simulation of rock cutting with wear evaluation
15.9 3D simulation of the laboratory test of rock cutting
15.10 Simulation of the linear cutting test
15.11 Conclusions

16. Innovative roadheader technology for safe and economic tunnelling

16.1 Roadheaders – state of the art
16.1.1 Tunneling with roadheaders
16.1.2 The principle of roadheader operation
16.1.3 Roadheader components
16.2 Overview
16.3 Cutter head, picks
16.3.1 Roadheader application
16.3.2 Roadheader selection
16.4 Rock parameters
16.5 Profile size – mode of application
16.6 One-step face excavation
16.7 Multi-step excavation of larger sections
16.8 Application in difficult ground conditions
16.8.1 Application example: Mont Cenis Tunnel/France–Italy
16.8.2 Application example: Metro Montreal Project, Lot C 04/Canada
16.9 The new roadheader generation – features and benefits
16.9.1 New technology
16.9.2 Integrated guidance system
16.10 Introduction
16.11 System principle
16.11.1 Improved sandvik cutting technology
16.12 Introduction
16.13 Pick-rock interaction
16.14 Numerical simulation
16.15 Outlook

17. Tube-à-manchette installation using horizontal directional drilling for soil grouting

17.1 Introduction
17.2 development of an articulated double packer
17.3 development of a blocking system for the sealing grout
17.4 design of the test
17.5 test development
17.5.1 Phase 1: Initial works
17.5.2 Phase 2: Horizontal directional drilling
17.5.3 Phase 3: Steel casing installation
17.5.4 Phase 4: Steel casing extraction
17.5.5 Phase 5: Injection of the grout bag
17.5.6 Phase 6: Annular sheath grouting
17.5.7 Phase 8: Ground injection
17.6 Summary

18. TBM technology for large to very large tunnel profiles

18.1 Introduction
18.2 Two mixshields for the railway tunnel access route to the brenner base tunnel
18.3 Two double shielded hard rock TBMs for the Brisbane North South Bypass Tunnel (NSBT)
18.4 Trend of very large diameter tunnel profiles
18.4.1 Largest earth pressure balance shield (Ø15.2M) used for the M30 road tunnel project in Madrid
18.4.2 Largest mixshield (Ø15.4 m) used for the Changjiang under river tunnel project in Shanghai
18.5 Tunconstruct activities

19. Real-time monitoring of the shotcreting process

19.1 Introduction
19.2 Monitoring the shotcreting process
19.2.1 Pumping variables
19.2.2 Spraying variables
19.3 Final remarks

20. Environmentally friendly, customised sprayed concrete

20.1 Introduction
20.2 Performance-based approach
20.3 Indicators chosen and their meanings
20.3.1 Constituent materials and mix proportions
20.3.2 Full scale sample preparation and tests conducted
20.4 Advantages of the approach: selected results
20.5 Final remarks and conclusions
20.6 Abbreviations

21. Innovations in shotcrete mixes

21.1 Introduction
21.2 Innovations
21.2.1 New components materials PB criterion
21.2.2 New special superplasticizer and nozzle accelerator
21.3 Special superplasticizer
21.4 Nozzle accelerator
21.4.1 New SM Automation of shotcrete machine
21.4.2 New admixture dosing unit
21.5 Shotcrete simplified mix design rules program
21.5.1 MDR (Mix Design Rules)
21.5.2 SMD (Shotcrete Mix design)
21.5.3 RER Validation factor
21.6 Summary

22. High performance and ultra high performance concrete segments – development and testing

22.1 Introduction
22.2 Development and laboratory testing
22.2.1 Basic recipe development
22.2.2 Derivation of design parameters and re-calculation
22.2.3 Comparative calculations
22.2.4 Checking of fire resistant behavior
22.2.5 Testing of industrial segment production
22.3 Real scale tests
22.3.1 General
22.3.2 Segment load bearing test
22.4 General
22.5 Test stand (Fig. 22.8)
22.6 Measurement
22.7 Conducting the segment load bearing test
22.7.1 Diaphragm load test
22.8 General
22.9 Test stand (Fig. 22.12)
22.10 Measurement
22.11 Conducting the diaphragm load test
22.11.1 Torsional rigidity test
22.12 General
22.13 Test stand (Fig. 22.14)
22.14 Measurement
22.15 Conducting the torsional rigidity test
22.16 First test results
22.17 Summary

23. Robotic tunnel inspection and repair

23.1 Introduction
23.2 Dragarita robot for fast inspection
23.3 IRIS: Integrated robotic inspection and maintenance system
23.3.1 Maintenance operations
23.3.2 Integrated process automation
23.3.3 Laboratory and field tests
23.4 Conclusions

24. An innovative geotechnical characterization method for deep exploration

24.1 Introduction
24.2 Background
24.3 Rock mass characterization with the stackable logging tools
24.3.1 Field tests
24.3.2 Rock quality estimation and borehole geophysical logging
24.4 Summary and conclusions

Short professional biographies of all contributors are included in the back of the volume.

The editor, Gernot Beer (Graz University of Technology, Austria), is currently the head of the Institute for Structural Analysis at the University Technology, Graz Austria. His main expertise is numerical simulation and he heads a group of researchers that is developing the next generation software for the simulation of underground excavations. He has conducted research and has consulted on this topic for three decades and authored and co-authored four textbooks on this subject. Prior to coordinating the project TUNCONSTRUCT he was the coordinator of a national research initiative Simulation in Tunneling (SiTu) and of another European project (Virtual fire emergency simulation, VITRUALFIRES). The project SiTu resulted in a book “Numerical Simulation in Tunneling” published by Springer for which he was the editor. As part of his consulting activities he served, together with Prof. E.T. Brown, on a panel of experts for the investigation of the Masjed-e-Soleiman underground Hydroelectric Power Plant in Iran.

Technology Innovation in Underground Construction

Edited by Gernot Beer

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