Wildlife Habitat Management

Introduction

What is Habitat?

Habitat Function

Habitat for Humans

Forests as Habitat

Historical Approaches to Managing Forests as Habitat

Why Manage Habitat?

Case Study: The Forests of British Columbia

Vertebrate Habitat Selection

Hierarchical Selection

Density-Dependent Habitat Selection

Relationship between Habitat Quality and Demographics

Population Fitness

Measuring Habitat Selection

Proximate and Ultimate Cues to Habitat Quality

Case Study: American Marten Habitat Selection

Forest Structure and Composition

Food and Cover in a Cellulose-Managed System

Vertical Complexity

Horizontal Patchiness

Forage Availability and Quality

Fruit Production

Dead and Damaged Trees

Tree Species and Invertebrate Associations

Tree Size and Density

Forest Floor Litter and Soil

Proximity to Water

Case Study: Plant Response to Herbivores, or Its a (Chemical) War out There!

Physical and Cultural Influences on Habitat Patterns

The Physical Environment

Geology

Topography: Slope, Aspect, and Elevation

Soils

Climate

Hydrology

Vegetation Patterns

Cultural Effects on Habitat Patterns

Land Use

Climate Change

Invasive Species

Case Study: Passenger Pigeons, Humans, and Forests

Disturbance Ecology and Habitat Dynamics

Disturbance Size

Disturbance Severity

Disturbance Frequency

Disturbance Frequency, Size, and Severity Relationships

Stand Dynamics

Stand Initiation

Stem Exclusion

Understory Reinitiation

Old Growth

Succession as a Continuum of Habitat Elements

Successional Pathways

Management Implications from Disturbances

Silviculture and Habitat Management: Even-Aged Systems

Silviculture as a Forest Disturbance

Characteristics of Even-Aged Stands

Considering the Capabilities of the Site

Choosing a Regeneration Method

Identifying Legacy Elements to Retain

Site Preparation Effects on Habitat Elements

Natural Regeneration and Planting Options

Vegetation Management Effects on Habitat Elements

Precommercial Thinning

Commercial Thinning

Fertilization

Rotation Length: Ecological and Economic Trade-Offs

Case Study: Douglas-Fir Plantation

Silviculture and Habitat Management: Uneven-Aged Systems

Characteristics of Uneven-Aged Stands

Considering the Site Potential

Uneven-Aged Regeneration Methods

Natural Regeneration and Planting Options

Uneven-Aged Stand Development

Habitat Elements in Uneven-Aged Stands

Vertical Structure

Horizontal Diversity

Forage and Browse

Dead and Dying Trees

Mast

Challenges to Using Uneven-Aged Methods

Nontraditional Management Approaches

Case Study: Managing a Small Privately Owned Forest

Desired Future Conditions

Developing the Stand Prescription

Case Study: Growing Red-Cockaded Woodpecker Habitat

Species Background and Management Options

Current Stand Condition

Desired Future Condition

Management Actions to Achieve the Desired Future Condition

Monitoring Plans

Budget

Riparian Area Management

Animal Associations with Riparian Areas

Gradients within Riparian Zones

Riparian Functions

Riparian Buffers

Managing within Streamside Management Areas

Beavers—The Stream Managers? 

Case Study: Riparian Area Management in a Patchwork Ownership

Dead Wood Management

Primary Cavity Excavators

Secondary Cavity Users

Log Users

Patterns of Dead Wood Following Disturbance

Changes in Dead Wood over Time

Dead Wood during Stand Development

Management of Tree Cavities and Dead Wood

Live Cavity-Tree Management in Managed Stands

Dead Wood Retention and Harvest System Considerations

Creating Snags and Logs for Wildlife

Monitoring Cavity Trees, Snags, and Logs

Case Study: Managing Dead Wood in Oregon Forests

Landscape Structure and Composition

Defining the Landscape

Habitat Quality at the Landscape Scale

Living on the Edge

Edge Geometry

Habitat Fragmentation

Habitat Area: Species–Area Relationships

Case Study: Habitat Area or Pattern?

Landscape Connections

Dispersal

Understanding the Probability of Successful Dispersal

Connectivity and Gap-Crossing Ability

Management Approaches to Connectivity

Case Study: Matrix Management for a Wide-Ranging Species

Approaches to Biodiversity Conservation

What is Biodiversity?

Setting Biodiversity Goals

How Do We Conceptualize “Biodiversity” to be Able to Conserve It?

Coarse-Filter Approaches

Meso-filter Approaches

Fine-Filter Approaches

Challenges to Managing Biodiversity

Spatial Scale

Time

Uncertainty

Landscape Management Plans

Establishing Goals

Current Conditions

Desired Future Conditions

Pathways to DFCs

Developing the Landscape Management Plan

Policy Guidelines for HCPs

General Structure of the Landscape Management Plan

Considering Alternative Plans

Finding Solutions to Land Management Planning Problems

Plan Effectiveness

Ecoregional Assessments and Prioritization

Ecoregional Assessments

Examples of Ecoregional Assessments

Conducting an Ecoregional Analysis

Assessing Patterns of Habitat Availability and Quality

Prioritizing Management and Assessing Policies

Coarse-Filter Approach

Integrated Coarse- and Fine-Filter Approaches

Fine-Filter Approaches

Utility and Effectiveness of Ecoregional Assessments

Viable Populations in Dynamic Forests

Extinction Risks

Goals of PVAs

PVA Models

Conducting a PVA for a Forest-Associated Species

Examples of PVA Analyses

Grizzly Bear

Marbled Murrelet

Northern Spotted Owl

Model Errors and Uncertainties

Poor Data

Difficulties in Parameter Estimation

Weak Ability to Validate Models

Effects of Alternative Model Structures

Interpreting Results from PVA Projections

Monitoring Habitat Elements and Populations

Adaptive Management

Designing Monitoring Plans

Selection of Response Variables

Describe the Scope of Inference

Describe the Experimental Design

Sampling Intensity, Frequency, and Duration

Monitoring Habitat Elements

Monitoring for Species Occurrence

Monitoring Trends

Cause-and-Effect Monitoring Designs

Are Data Already Available and Sufficient?

Making Decisions with Data

Examples of Approaches to Monitoring

Monitoring Clonal Plants

Monitoring the Occurrence of a Small-Mammal Species

Monitoring Trends in a Salamander Subpopulation

Monitoring Response of Neotropical Migrant Birds to Forest Management

Monitoring Habitat Elements

Forest Sustainability and Habitat Management

Defining the Resources to be Sustained

Scales of Sustainability

Humans are Part of the System

Forest Certification

Effectiveness of Certification

Regulatory and Legal Considerations

International Laws and Agreements

National Laws

State Laws

Municipal Policies

Policy Analysis

How Decisions in the United States Influence Habitat in the World?

Should I Manage a Forest?

What Does Restoration Mean?

Human Requirements as Constraints on Goals

Developing a Personal Management Philosophy

Our Place on Earth

Living Simply and Sustainably

Leaving the World a Better Place

Appendix 1: Common and Scientific Names of Species Mentioned in the Text

Mammals

Birds

Amphibians

Reptiles

Insects

Fish

Plants

Appendix 2: Glossary

Appendix 3: Measuring and Interpreting Habitat Elements

Methods

Random Sampling

Measuring Density

Estimating Percent Cover

Estimating Height

Estimating Basal Area

Estimating Biomass

Using Estimates of Habitat Elements to Assess Habitat Presence

Using Estimates of Habitat Elements to Assess Habitat Suitability

Assessing the Distribution of Habitat across a Landscape

References

Index