CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

This chapter introduces and discusses cognitive dissonance theory, a classic psychological perspective on attitudes. Chapter 9 is designed to familiarize students with the main tenets of the theory and their implications for decision-making and commitment. The chapter covers now-classic studies of dissonance, intellectual controversies, and the many applications dissonance theory has for persuasion and everyday life.

TERMS AND ISSUES TO KNOW

Cognitive dissonance: a negative, unpleasant state that occurs whenever a person holds
two psychologically inconsistent cognitions.
Spreading apart the alternatives: a dissonance-reducing strategy in which the individual cognitively increases the distance between two close alternatives such that the chosen alternative gets a higher evaluation, and the rejected choice a lower one, following the decision.
Induced compliance: an individual freely agrees to perform an action, or comply with a request, that is incompatible with his/her attitude.
Negative incentive effect: paying people less changes their attitudes more; small rewards lead to greater attitude change following induced compliance than do large rewards.
Self-Perception Theory: theoretical approach stipulating that performance of a behavior leads to attitude change through a process of self-perception; individuals infer attitudes dispassionately from observing behavior. It was invoked to explain early dissonance studies and has been applied to other persuasion contexts.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How does dissonance differ from other theoretical approaches to persuasion (for example, ELM, source perspectives, and message models)? What does it have in common with other models?
2. Dissonance theory says that people are motivated to change attitudes to fit behavior following stressful decisions, painful expenditures of effort, and (provided certain conditions are met) when they make counterattitudinal statements. Take issue with these predictions, suggesting other ways people might resolve dissonance than changing attitudes (see discussion in the decision-making section of the chapter). More generally, come up with cases in which people might not be so motivated to change their attitude to fit their behavior or might not be so obsessed with consistency as dissonance theory suggests. You might also consider whether dissonance theory holds more for certain types of people in certain cultures than others -- or whether you believe it is universal.
3. Review the different theoretical explanations of dissonance effects. Which seem most plausible?
4. Select an issue that you care passionately about. Identify several ways that dissonance theory might help you change attitudes in the desired direction on this issue.
   

PRACTICE TEST QUESTIONS

1. Which of these is NOT true of cognitive dissonance?
   a. Dissonance is a negative state that occurs when a person holds two logically inconsistent thoughts
   b. Dissonance in an unpleasant state that occurs when a person holds two psychologically inconsistent thoughts
   c. People may not always succeed in reducing dissonance, but they are motivated to try
   d. One way people reduce dissonance is to change their attitude to fit their behavior
2. Dissonance theory differs from other attitude models discussed thus far in one key way. Unlike other models discussed so far, it emphasizes that:
   a. people persuade themselves to change a problematic attitude
   b. communications can change attitudes
   c. changes in behavior can lead to changes in attitude
   d. the mind plays a role in persuasion
3. A parent wants to induce a teenager to study more. According to dissonance theory, which of these is least likely to succeed in changing the adolescent's attitude toward studying?
   a. the parent gives the teenager a small, token reward for regularly hitting the books
   b. parents bestow a large reward on the teen for studying
   c. mom and dad arrange it so that their teenage child expends a lot of effort studying
   d. parents ask the adolescent to give a speech in favor of studying regularly
4. Which of these accurately summarizes the self-perception interpretation of Festinger and Carlsmith's $1 lie study?
   a. "It bothers me that I said something that is not consistent with my attitude."
   b. "I just lied to someone, and that's not the kind of person I am."
   c. "I'm responsible for deceiving someone else."
   d. "I only got paid a buck for telling the student the task was fun. Now why would I do that? I sure didn't do it for the money? I must really have liked the task."
5. Under which of these conditions should dissonance predictions NOT hold?
   a. a person is coerced into behaving a certain way
   b. an individual freely chooses to perform an advocated behavior
   c. a person willingly agrees to say something he does not totally believe
   d. an individual chooses to spend a lot of effort on a boring task
6. According to a hypocrisy-induction view of dissonance, the most effective technique for reducing prejudice is to:
   a. have people quietly role-play what it is like growing up as a victim of prejudice
   b. confront prejudiced individuals, letting them know prejudice is not consistent with their view of themselves
   c. reward people for behaving in nonprejudiced ways
   d. force people to live in areas populated by those who are different from them

Answers: 1: a, 2: c, 3: b, 4: d, 5: a, 6: b

EXERCISES

1. Arrange to interview several individuals who have just made an emotional decision (for example, buying an important product, joining a fraternity or sorority following Pledge Week, taking one job rather than another, quitting smoking, or bowing out of a relationship). Gently interview them to discover the conflicts they experienced as they made the decision and how they reduced dissonance after the decision. Do you believe they handled the dissonance in a functional or not-so-healthy way? Based on discussion in chapter 9, offer any suggestions for how they might cope with dissonance more effectively.
2. Select a social or political issue that interests you. Drawing on dissonance theory's implications for persuasion, as discussed in the chapter, write and deliver a speech that tries to arouse dissonance on this topic. Did you succeed in changing attitudes? What would you change next time around?
   

NEWS FEATURES

The news media are full of stories of individuals who have experienced stressful initiation rites that can arouse dissonance. In some cases, the dissonance arousal can have positive consequences, as illustrated by this article on medical interns:

"For three interns, fatigue and healing at top speed," by N.R. Kleinfield, The New York Times, November 15, 1999, pp. A1, A28.

In other cases, the dissonance can lead to negative consequences, as in this article on possible physical abuse in boot camp training programs for troubled youth:

"A proponent of boot camps becomes the focus of critics," by Michael Janofsky, The New York Times, August 9, 2001, pp. A1, A16.

Discuss what these articles suggest about dissonance theory. When does dissonance produced by effort expenditure have positive effects and when could it backfire?