4th Edition
Principles of Research in Behavioral Science Fourth Edition
This book provides a comprehensive overview of research methods in the behavioral sciences, focusing primarily on the conceptual issues inherent in conducting research. It covers topics that are often omitted from other texts, including measurement issues, correlational research, qualitative research, and integrative literature reviews. The book also includes discussions of diversity issues as they related to behavioral science research. New to this edition are chapter boxes that focus on applied issues related to each chapter topic. Throughout the book, readable examples and informative tables and figures are provided. The authors also take a contemporary approach to topics such as research ethics, replication research, and data collection (including internet research).
Part 1. Introduction
Chapter 1: Behavioral Science
Science
Goals of Science
Key Values of Science
Scientific Approaches to Knowledge
Theories
Components of Theories
Characteristics of Theories
Purposes of Theories
Criteria for Evaluating Theories
Research
The Research Process
Evaluating Research
Inference in Research
Theory, Research, and Application
The Interdependence of Theory, Research, and Application
The Uses of Behavioral Science and Theory
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 2: Research Strategies: An Overview
Purposes of Research
Basic and Applied Research
Evaluation Research
Action Research
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Research Strategies
The Experimental Strategy
The Case Study Strategy
The Correlational Strategy
Comparing the Strategies
Time Perspectives: Short Term Versus Long Term
Developmental Research
Prospective Research
Outcome Evaluation
Research Settings: Laboratory Versus Field
Research Strategies and Research Settings
Research Settings and Research Participants
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Readings
Key Terms
References
Chapter 3: The Ethical Treatment of Research Participants
Responsibility for Ethical Research
Ethical Considerations While Planning Research
Risk of Harm or Deprivation
Voluntary Participation
Informed Consent
Deception
Ethical Obligations During Data Collection
Avoidance of Harm
Withdrawal of Consent
Ethical Considerations Following Data Collection
Alleviating Adverse Effects
Debriefing
Compensation of Control Groups
Confidentiality of Data
The Institutional Review Board
Membership of the IRB
Criteria for approving research
Review procedures
Research Ethics in Cultural Context
Examples of Ethical Issues
Some Guidelines
Chapter Summary
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
References
Part 2: Foundations of Research
Chapter 4: The Professional and Social Responsibilities of Scientists
Mistakes and Errors in Research
Consequences of Error
Incompetence and Negligence
Questionable Research Practices
Correcting Mistakes and Errors
Scientific Misconduct
Data Fabrication
Preventing Scientific Misconduct
Ethical Issues in Publication
Authorship Credit
Duplicate Publication
Plagiarism
Using the Results of Research
The Application of Research Results
Influencing Decision Makers
Researcher’s Responsibilities
Research and the Common Good
Is Applied Research More Ethical Than Basic Research?
Should Research on Some Topics Be Banned or Restricted?
Is There an Ethical Obligation to Conduct Research?
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 5: Formulating a Research Question
Formulating Research Hypotheses
Establishing a Background
Choosing a Topic
Formulating the Question
Reviewing the Literature
Formulating Hypotheses
Designing the Study
Writing the Research Proposal
Replication Research
Forms of Replication
Interpreting the Results of Replication Research
Considerations in Conducting Replication Research
Replication as Part of a Systematic Research Program
Designing Research for Utilization
Knowledge Utilization
Design Considerations
Dissemination of Research Results
Bias in the Formulation of Research Questions
Personal Values
Biased Assumptions
Avoiding Bias
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 6: Developing a Measurement Strategy
Reliability and Validity
Manifest Variables and Hypothetical Constructs
Reliability, Validity, and Measurement Error
Assessing Reliability
Forms of Reliability
Choosing Among the Forms of Reliability
Standards for Reliability
Item Response Theory
Assessing Validity
Categories of Validity Evidence
Discriminant Validity
Relationships Among the Categories of Validity Evidence
Determining a Measure’s Degree of Validity
Modalities of Measurement
Self-Report Measures
Behavioral Measures
Physiological Measures
Implicit Measures
Choosing a Measurement Modality
Locating and Evaluating Measures
Categories of Measures
Locating Measures
Evaluating Measures
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 7: The Internal Validity of Research
Confounds
Natural Confounds
Treatment Confounds
Measurement Confounds
Threats to Internal Validity
Time-Related Threats
Control Groups in Pretest-Posttest Research
Theoretical Validity
Selection Threats
Volunteer bias
Preexisting groups
Mortality
Reactivity
Sources of Reactivity
Evaluation apprehension
Controlling Reactivity
Demand Characteristics
Sources of Demand Characteristics
Participant Roles
Controlling Demand Characteristics
Experimenter Expectancies
Types of Expectancy Effects
Techniques of Control
Enhancing Internal Validity
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 8: The External Validity of Research
The Concept of External Validity
Aspects of External Validity
Components of External Validity
The Structural Components of External Validity
Setting Factors
Participant Sample Factors
Research Procedure Factors
Cultural Factors
Time Factors
Time sampling
Changes over time
The Functional and Conceptual Components of External Validity
The Functional Component
The Conceptual Component
Relationships Among the Components of External Validity
Assessing External Validity
Assessing Generalizability
Assessing Ecological Validity
Laboratory Research, Natural Setting Research, and External Validity
Laboratory Research and Ecological Validity
External Validity and Internal Validity
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Part 3: Research Design
Chapter 9: True Experiments
Manipulating the Independent Variables
Conditions of the Independent Variable
Additional Control and Comparison Conditions
Characteristics of a Good Manipulation
Using Multiple Stimuli
Controlling Extraneous Variance
Holding Extraneous Variables Constant
Between-Subjects Designs
Within-Subjects Designs
Multiple-Group Designs
Quantitative Independent Variables
Qualitative Independent Variables
Interpreting the Results of Multiple-Group Experiments
Factorial Designs
The Nature of Factorial Designs
Interaction Effects
Forms of Factorial Designs
Uses for Factorial Designs
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Readings
Key Terms
References
Chapter 10: Field Research
The Problem of Control in Field Settings
Control Over Variables
Control Over Research Populations
Field Experiments
Choosing a Research Setting
Implementing the Independent Variable
Problems in Field Experimentation
Natural Experiments and Quasi-Experiments
The Group Comparison Approach
The Time Series Approach
Naturalistic Observation
Categories of Naturalistic Observation
Nonparticipant observation
Coding Natural Behaviors
Problems in Naturalistic Observation
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 11: Correlational Designs
The Nature of Correlational Research
Simple Correlation Analysis
Assumptions of Linearity and Additivity
Factors Affecting the Correlation Coefficient
Multifaceted Constructs
Some Recommendations
Partial Correlation Analysis
Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA)
Forms of MRA
Information Provided by MRA
The Problem of Multicollinearity
MRA as an Alternative to ANOVA
Some Other Correlational Techniques
Logistic Regression Analysis
Multiway Frequency Analysis
Data Types and Data Analysis
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 12: Factor Analysis, Path Analysis, and Structural Equation Modeling
Exploratory Factor Analysis
Uses of Exploratory Factor Analysis
Considerations in Exploratory Factor Analysis
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Hypothesis Testing
Measure Validation
Evaluating Goodness of Fit
Testing Mediational Hypotheses
The Causal Steps Strategy
Path Analysis with Observed Variables
Structural Equation Modeling
Prospective Research
Limits on Interpretation
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 13: The Single-Case Research Strategy
The Role of Single-Case Research in Psychology
Some History
Uses of Single-Case Research
Validity Criteria in Single-Case Research
Measurement Criteria
Replication Criteria
Control Criteria
Impact Criteria
Treatment Criteria
Case Study Research
Choosing Cases to Study
Data Collection
Single-Case Experiments
Designs for Single-Case Experiments
The Importance of a Stable Baseline
Data Analysis in Single-Case Research
Qualitative Data
Quantitative Data
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 14: Qualitative Research and Interviewing
Rachel Kraus, Ball State University
The Purpose and Goals of Qualitative Research
The Nature of Qualitative Research
Key Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research Questions
How to Choose a Qualitative Research Question
Qualitative Research as "Work"
How is Qualitative Research Evaluated?
Reliability in Qualitative Research
Validation Strategies
Trustworthiness
Designing Qualitative Research
Grounded Theory
Ethnography
Sampling
Non-probability Samples in Qualitative Research
Sample Size and Theoretical Saturation
Data Collection
Qualitative Interviews
After the Interview
Transcription
Data Analysis
Coding
Interpreting the Data
The Use of Software Programs in Qualitative Research
Writing About Qualitative Research
Reflexivity and Representation
Audience
Encoding
Using Participants’ Quotes
Writing Strategies Across Qualitative Approaches
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 15: Survey Research
Asking Questions
Open- and Closed-Ended Questions
Question Wording
Obtaining Answers
Levels of Measurement
Response Formats
Choosing a Response Format
Multi-Item Scales
Advantages of Multi-Item Scales
Types of Multi-Item Scales
Response Biases
Question-Related Biases
Person-Related Biases
Cultural Response Sets
Interpreting Responses
Questionnaire Design
Question Order
Constructing Questionnaire
Instructions
Using Existing Measures
Questionnaire Administration
Group Administration
Online Surveys
Telephone Interviews
In-Person Interviews
Comparing the Methods
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Part 4: Collecting and Interpreting Data
Chapter 16: Evaluation Research
Goal Definition
Needs Assessment
Evaluability Assessment
Program Monitoring
The Target Population
Program Implementation
Unintended Effects
Program Monitoring and Program Development
Impact Assessment
Criteria for Evaluating Impact
Answering the Research Questions
Research Designs
Interpreting Null Results
Sources of null results
When "null" results are not null
Efficiency Analysis
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
Information Utilization
Criteria for Research Utilization
The Political Context
Measuring Change
Difference Scores
The Reliable Change Index
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 17: Data Collection
Research Participants
Populations and Samples
Sampling
Sample Size
Research Procedures
Effective Research Settings
Effective Instructions
"Debugging" the Procedure
The Data Collection Session
The Post-Experimental Interview
Research Assistants
Using the Internet to Collect Data
The Validity of Web-Based Data
Advantages of Internet Research
Limitations of Internet Research
Participant Recruitment
Ethical Issues
Archival Data
Types of Archives
Advantages of Archival Data
Limitations of Archival Data
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 18: Interpreting Research Results
Describing the Results of the Research
The Nature of the Relationship
Real Versus Chance Relationships
Effect Size and Importance
Inference in Behavioral Science Research
Knowledge as a Social Construction
Bias in Interpreting Data
Making Valid Inferences
Null Results
Uses of the Null Hypothesis
Prejudice Against the Null Hypothesis
Accepting the Null Hypothesis
Integrating the Results of Research
Identifying Implications for Theory
Identifying Implications for Research
Identifying Implications for Application
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Chapter 19: Literature Reviewing
Purposes of Literature Reviews
Conceptual Literature Reviews
Integrative Literature Reviews
Defining the Research Question
The Scope of the Question
Approaches to Answering the Question
Finding Relevant Research
Deciding Which Studies to Use
Include All Studies
Include Only Published Studies
Include Only Valid Studies
Stratified Sampling
Expert Judgment
Integrating the Results of Primary Research
Levels of Analysis
Operationally Defining Study Outcome
Narrative Literature Reviews
Meta-Analysis
Meta-synthesis
Best Evidence Literature Reviewing
Interpreting the Results
The Effects of Judgment Calls
The Correlational Nature of Moderator Variable Analyses
Meaning versus Numbers in Meta-Analysis
Evaluating Literature Reviews
Understanding Meta-Analysis
Defining the Research Question
Locating Relevant Research
Deciding Which Studies to Include
Integrating the Results of the Studies
Interpreting the Results of the Meta-Analysis
Chapter Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Key Terms
References
Biography
Mary E. Kite is Professor of Social Psychology at Ball State University, USA. She received her Ph.D. from Purdue University. Her research focuses on stereotyping and prejudice toward women, gays and lesbians, and older adults. She has served as President of The Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP, APA Division 2) and Secretary-Treasurer and President of the Midwestern Psychological Association (MPA). She is a Fellow of APA Divisions 2, 8, 9, 35, and 44 and of the Association for Psychological Science and MPA. In 2014, she received the Charles L. Brewer Distinguished Teaching Award from the American Psychological Foundation. She co-authored the third edition of The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination with Bernard E. Whitley, Jr.
Bernard E. Whitley, Jr. is Professor Emeritus of Psychological Science at Ball State University, USA. He received his Ph.D. in Social Psychology from the University of Pittsburgh. He is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association and charter member and Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science. His research interests focus on the roles of ideological variables in prejudice, and he has published in many journals including Psychological Bulletin, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. His other books include The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination with Mary E. Kite and Academic Dishonesty: An Educator’s Guide (2002) with Patricia Keith-Spiegel.
