3rd Edition
Applied Communication Research Methods Getting Started as a Researcher
Preface
1. Basic Principles of Research and a Guide to Using This Book
Principles of Research
Empirical
Systematic
Intersubjective
Cyclical and Self-Correcting
Steps to Success: The Research Process
Using This Book
Voices From Industry: Jessica and Ziggy Zubric
Chapter 1 Further Reading
2. Basic Concepts of Research
Variable
Unit of Analysis
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Third Variable
Relationship
Prediction
Positive Versus Negative Relationship
Mediation
Moderation
Causality
Time Order
Confounds
Theory
Inductive Versus Deductive Reasoning
Falsification
Research in Action: Theories in Communication Put to Practice
Parsimony
Voices From Industry: Brandon Rost
Scope
Hypotheses
Steps to Success: Writing Effective Hypotheses
Research Questions
Chapter 2 Activities
Chapter 2 Further Reading
3. Scholarly Research and the Creation of Knowledge
Knowledge
Bias
Philosophies of knowing
Authority
Intuition
Tenacity
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
Replication
Triangulation
Voices From Industry: Chris Nietupski
Secondary Analysis
Biases and Distortions in the Literature
Publication Bias
Predatory publishing
Retractions
Goals of Research
Steps to Success: Goals of Research
Application
Exploration
Description
Explanation
Parts of a Research Article
Steps to Success: Effectively Reading a Research Article
Abstract
Literature Review
Method Section
Results Section
Discussion Section
Future Directions
Reference List
Appendix (or Appendices)
Tables
Figures
Steps to Success: Identifying Research Articles
Other Types of Articles
Literature Review Article
Meta-analysis
Data-Driven Journalism
Chapter 3 Activities
Chapter 3 References
Chapter 3 Further Reading
4. Ethical Research
Principles of Ethical Research
Avoid Harm
Informed Consent
Voluntary Participation
Steps to Success: Creating an Effective Consent Form
Privacy
Anonymity
Confidentiality
Ethics-Related Procedures
Confederates
Deception
Debriefing
Institutional Review
Honesty
Plagiarism
Fabrication
Research in Action: Reconsidering a Classic Study
Recycling text and data
Chapter 4 Activities
Chapter 4 References
Chapter 4 Further Reading
5. Concept Explication and Measurement
Concept Explication
Concept
Conceptual Definition
Operational Definition
Voices From Industry: Bob Meadow
Indicator
Attribute
Dimension
Factor Analysis
Index
Steps to Success: Effective Concept Development
Error
Random Error
Systematic Error
Measurement Error
Steps to Success: How to Find the Right Types of Validity and Reliability
Chapter 5 Activities
Chapter 5 Further Reading
6. Sampling
Sample
Representative Sample
Response Rate
Incentive
Sample Size
Statistical Power
Sampling Frame
Internet Panels
Steps to Success: Constructing an Effective Sample
Population
Census
Research in Action: The work of the US Census Bureau - Beyond the census
Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Deliberate Sampling
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Volunteer Sampling
Voices From Industry - Aaron Troutman, Communications Staff for PA House of Representatives
Probability Sampling
Random
Simple Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Sampling Interval
Chapter 6 Activities
Chapter 6 References
Chapter 6 Further Reading
7. Effective Measurement
Effective Measurement
Self-Report
Others’ Reports
Rapport
Voices from Industry: Kelly Ratka
Questionnaire Structure
Questionnaire Design
Steps to Success: Creating an Effective Questionnaire
Filter and Contingency Questions
Response Set
Order Effects
Question Creation
Closed-Ended
Open-Ended
Research in Action: Customer Service Questionnaires
Exhaustive
Mutually Exclusive
Levels of Measurement
Steps to Success: Determining Level of Measurement
Nominal-Level Measure
Ordinal-Level Measure
Interval-Level Measure
Ratio-Level Measure
Research in Action: Measuring Media Use
Question Wording Problems
Leading Questions
Social Desirability
Clarity
Double-Barreled
Types of Items
Likert-Type Items
Semantic Differential Items
Chapter 7 Activities
Chapter 7 References
Chapter 7 Further Reading
8. Validity
Validity
Internal Validity
External Validity/Generalizability
Ecological Validity
Measurement Validity
Construct Validity (Convergent and Discriminant)
Content Validity
Steps to Success: Ensuring Measurement Validity
Criterion Validity (Concurrent and Predictive)
Voices From Industry: Jake Weigler
Threats to Validity
Observer Effect (i.e., Hawthorne Effect)
History
Interparticipant Bias
Maturation
Mortality
Regression Toward the Mean
Ceiling and Floor Effects
Researcher Bias
Selection Bias
Sensitization
Steps to Success: Avoiding Threats to Validity
Chapter 8 Activities
Chapter 8 References
Chapter 8 Further Reading
9. Studying People quantitatively
Quantitative research design
Surveys
Interview-style survey
Face-to-face survey
Telephone Survey
Self-Administered Survey
Internet Survey
Mail Survey
Opinion polls
Experiments
Experimental design
Random Assignment
Matched (or Paired) Assignment
Between-Subjects Design
Within-Subjects Design
Double-blind design
Research in Action: Considering the Pepsi Challenge
Pre-test/post-test
Solomon four-group design
Quasi-Experimental Design
Field Experiment
Voice From Industry - Carlina DiRusso
Experimental factors
Treatment Groups
Stimulus
Stimulus sampling
Control Group
Longitudinal Designs
Cross-Sectional Study
Cohort Study
Trend Study
Panel Study
Chapter 9 Activities
Chapter 9 Further Reading
10. Studying people qualitatively
Qualitative research design
Case Study
Observation
Direct and Indirect
Participant Observation
Complete Observer
Complete Participant
Observer-as-Participant and Participant-as-Observer
Voices From Industry: Briana Greenwood
In-Depth Interviewing
Interview Structure
Fully Structured Interview
Semistructured Interview
Unstructured Interview
Funnel
Steps to Success: Preparing for an Effective Qualitative Interview
Transcript
Steps to Success: Preparing the Transcript
Focus Group
Moderator
Field Research
Ethnography
Exiting
Field Notes
Natural Settings
Saturation
Chapter 10 Activities
Chapter 10 Further Reading
11. Analyzing texts and other artifacts
Analyzing texts and other artifacts
Texts and social artifacts
Quantitative Content Analysis
Unitizing
Coding and the Coding Process
Coding Guide
Coding Sheet
Computer-Aided Content Analysis
Voices From Industry - Sue McCrossin
Latent Content
Manifest Content
Research in Action: Analyzing Election Coverage
Qualitative Analysis of Texts
Exemplars and Themes
Approaches to qualitative textual analysis
Discourse analysis
Conversation Analysis
Historical Analysis
Rhetorical Criticism
Chapter 11 Activities
Chapter 11 References
Chapter 11 Further Reading
12. Reliability and subjectivity
Reliability
Measurement reliability
Item-Total Reliability
Parallel-Forms Reliability
Split-Halves Reliability
Test-Retest Reliability
Cronbach’s Alpha
Steps to Success: Using Cronbach’s Alpha to Improve Measurement
Intercoder Reliability
Intercoder Statistics
Steps to Success: Preparing for Intercoder Reliability
Subjectivity
Reflexivity
Standpoint theory
Grounded Theory
Constant Comparative Technique
Chapter 12 Activities
Chapter 12 Further Reading
13. Descriptive Statistics
Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Central Tendency
Mean
Median
Mode
Dispersion
Range
Variance
Standard Deviation
Steps to Success: Computing the Standard Deviation
Frequency Distribution
Histogram
Normal Distribution
Kurtosis
Outliers
Research in Action: Dealing with Outliers
Skew
Steps to Success: Handling Skewed Data
Chapter 13 Activities
Chapter 13 Further Reading
14. Estimation and Inference
Inferential Statistics
Estimation
Parameter
Confidence Level
Confidence Interval
Margin of Error
Sampling Distribution
Sampling Error
Standard Error
Logic of Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
Null Hypothesis
Alternatives to Null Hypothesis Testing
p-Value
Statistical Significance
One-Tailed Versus Two-Tailed Tests
Type I Error
Bonferroni Correction
Questionable Research Practices and Type I Error
Type II Error
Effect Size
Variance Explained
Chapter 14 Activities
Chapter 14 References
Chapter 14 Further Reading
15. Bivariate and Multivariate Statistics
Analyzing Relationships
Bivariate Analysis
Chi-Square
Steps to Success: Computing Chi-Square
t-Tests
One-Way ANOVA
Correlation (Pearson’s r)
Linearity
Multivariate Analysis
Statistical Control
Spuriousness
Suppression
Interaction
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) With Multiple Independent Variables
ANCOVA
MANOVA
Regression
Steps to Success: Assumptions of Statistical Tests
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
R2
Logistic Regression
Odds Ratio
Chapter 15 Activities
Chapter 15 Further Reading
Index
Biography
Michael P. Boyle is a professor in the Department of Communication and Media at West Chester University, USA.
Mike Schmierbach is a professor in the Donald P. Bellisario College of Communications at The Pennsylvania State University, USA.
