3rd Edition
Instrumentation, Measurements, and Experiments in Fluids
Chapter 1 Needs and Objectives of Experimental Study
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Some Fluid Mechanics Measurements
1.3 Measurement Systems
1.4 Some of the Important Quantities Associated with Fluid Flow Measurements
1.5 Summary
Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Properties of Fluids
2.3 Thermodynamic Properties
2.4 Surface Tension
2.5 Analysis of Fluid Flow
2.6 Basic and Subsidiary Laws for Continuous Media
2.7 Kinematics of Fluid Flow
2.8 Streamlines
2.9 Potential Flow
2.10 Viscous Flows
2.11 Gas Dynamics
2.12 Summary
Exercise Problems
Chapter 3 Wind Tunnels
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Low–Speed Wind Tunnels
3.3 Power Losses in a Wind Tunnel
3.4 High–Speed Wind Tunnels
3.5 Hypersonic Tunnels
3.6 Instrumentation and Calibration of Wind Tunnels
3.7 Wind Tunnel Balance
3.8 Internal Balance
3.9 Calibration of Supersonic Wind Tunnels
3.10 Calibration and Use of Hypersonic Tunnels
3.11 Flow Visualization
3.12 Hypervelocity Facilities
3.13 Ludwieg Tube
3.14 Current Trends in Wind Tunnel Testing
3.15 Test Gas
3.16 A Typical Cryogenic Tunnel
3.17 Influence of Condensation on Minimum Operating Temperature of Cryogenic Tunnel
3.18 Limiting Mach Number in Cryogenic Wind Tunnels
3.19 Some of the Well-Known Cryogenic Tunnels
3.20 Benefits of Ludwieg Tubes
3.21 Cooling
3.22 Summary
Exercise Problems
Chapter 4 Flow Visualization
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Visualization Techniques
4.3 Compressible Flows
4.4 Importance of the Range and Sensitivity of the Schlieren System
4.5 Importance of the Range and Sensitivity of the Schlieren System
4.6 Particle Image Velocimetry
4.7 Water Flow Channel
4.8 Summary
Exercise Problems
Chapter 5 Hot-Wire Anemometry
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Operating Principle
5.3 Hot-Wire Filaments
5.4 Constant Current Hot-Wire Anemometer CCA
5.5 Constant Temperature Hot-Wire Anemometers
5.6 Hot-Wire Probes
5.7 Hot-Wire Bridge for Classroom Demonstration
5.8 Effect of Compressibility
5.9 Limitations of Hot-Wire Anemometer
5.10 Summary
Exercise Problems
Chapter 6 Analogue Methods
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Hele-Shaw Apparatus
6.3 Electrolytic Tank
6.4 Hydraulic Analogy
6.5 Hydraulic Jumps (Shocks)
6.6 Velocity Measurement
6.7 Experimental Study
6.8 Application of the Hydraulic Analogy to Supersonic Airfoils
6.9 Experimental Study
6.10 Role of Water Flow Channel in Analogue Methods
6.11 Summary
Chapter 7 Pressure Measurement Techniques
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Barometers
7.3 Manometers
7.4 Dial–Type Pressure Gauge
7.5 Pressure Transducers
7.6 Pitot, Static, and Pitot-Static Tubes
7.7 Pitot-Static Tube Characteristics
7.8 Factors Influencing Pitot-Static Tube Performance
7.9 Pitot Probes
7.10 Static Probes
7.11 Pitot-Static Probes
7.12 Yaw Effect in Compressible Flow
7.13 Static Pressure Measurement in Compressible Flows
7.14 Determination of Flow Direction
7.15 Low–Pressure Measurement
7.16 Preston/Stanton Tubes
7.17 Sound Measurements
7.18 Dynamic Pressure Gauges
7.19 Summary
Exercise Problems
Chapter 8 Velocity Measurements
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Velocity and Mach Number from Pressure Measurements
8.3 Laser Doppler Anemometer
8.4 Measurement of Velocity by Hot-Wire Anemometer
8.5 Measurement of Velocity Using Vortex Shedding Technique
8.6 Fluid-Jet Anemometer
8.7 Summary
Exercise Problems
Chapter 9 Temperature Measurement
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Temperature Scales
9.3 Temperature Measurement
9.4 Temperature Measurement by Thermal Expansion
9.5 Temperature Measurements by Electrical Effects
9.6 Practical Thermocouple Measurements
9.7 Specialty of Thermocouples
9.8 The Resistance Temperature Detector
9.9 Temperature Measurement with Pyrometers
9.10 Temperature Measurement in Fluid Flows
9.11 Temperature-Measuring Problems in Fluid Flows
9.12 Dynamic Response of Temperature Sensors
9.13 Summary
Exercise Problems
Chapter 10 Measurement of Wall Shear Stress
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Measurement Methods
10.3 Summary
Chapter 11 Mass and Volume Flow Measurements
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Direct Methods
11.3 Indirect Methods
11.4 Volume Flow Meter
11.5 Summary
Exercise Problems
Chapter 12 Special Flows
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Geophysical Flows
12.3 Experiment on Taylor-Proudman Theorem
12.4 Experiment on Ekman Layer
12.5 Experiment on Spin-Up and Spin-Down
12.6 Transition and Reverse Transition
12.7 Measurement in Boundary Layers
12.8 Summary
Chapter 13 Data Acquisition and Processing
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Data Acquisition Principle
13.3 Data Conversion
13.4 Personal Computer Hardware
13.5 Data Acquisition Using Personal Computers
13.6 Digitization Errors due to A/D Conversion
13.7 Summary
Chapter 14 Uncertainty Analysis
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Estimation of Measurement Errors
14.3 External Estimate of the Error
14.4 Internal Estimate of the Error
14.5 Uncertainty Analysis
14.6 Uncertainty Estimation
14.7 General Procedure
14.8 Uncertainty Calculation
14.9 Summary
Exercise Problems
References
Index
Biography
Ethirajan Rathakrishnan is professor of Aerospace Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India. He is well-known internationally for his research in the area of high-speed jets. The limit for the passive control of jets, called the Rathakrishnan Limit, is his contribution to the field of jet research, and the concept of breathing blunt nose (BBN), which simultaneously reduces the positive pressure at the nose and increases the low pressure at the base is his contribution to drag reduction at hypersonic speeds. Positioning the twin-vortex Reynolds number at around 5000, by changing the geometry from cylinder, for which the maximum limit for the Reynolds number for positioning the twin-vortex was found to be around 160, by von Karman, to flat plate, is his addition to vortex flow theory. He has published a large number of research articles in many reputed international journals. He is a Fellow of many professional societies including the Royal Aeronautical Society. Rathakrishnan serves as the Editor-in-Chief of the International Review of Aerospace Engineering (IREASE) and International Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME) journals. He has authored the following books: Gas Dynamics, 8th ed. (PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2026); Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 2nd ed. (PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2005); Fluid Mechanics: An Introduction, 4th ed. (PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2021); Gas Tables, 3rd ed. (Universities Press, Hyderabad, India, 2012); Theory of Compressible Flows (Maruzen Co., Ltd. Tokyo, Japan, 2008); Gas Dynamics Work Book, 2nd ed. (Praise Worthy Prize, Napoli, Italy, 2013); Theoretical Aerodynamics (John Wiley, New Jersey, USA, 2013); High Enthalpy Gas Dynamics (John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2015); Dynamique Des Gaz (Praise Worthy Prize, Napoli, Italy, 2015); Helicopter Aerodynamics, (PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2019); Applied Gas Dynamics 2nd ed. (John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2019); Introduction to Aerospace Engineering – Basic Principles of Flight (John Wiley, New Jersey, USA, 2021); Encyclopedia of Fluid Mechanics (CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, 2022); Fluid and Thermal Dynamics Answer Bank for Engineers: The Concise Guide with Formulas and Principles for Students and Professional (Brown Walker Press, FL, USA, 2023); Mind Power: The Sixth Sense (Routledge, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, 2023); Hypersonic Slender Body Aerodynamics (John Wiley, New Jersey, USA, 2025); Elements of Heat Transfer, 2nd ed. (CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, 2026); and Power of Nature (Routledge, Taylor & Francis, UK, 2026).
